LIVE FROM SCHENECTADY essays

LIVE FROM SCHENECTADY essays One of the most important discoveries that has to do with communication is the television. The television opened a new world to people, especially ones that could not be at important events like Neil Armstrong landing on the moon. Today over 1 billion televisions can be found on earth. On a January afternoon in 1928 live from General Electrics radio laboratories in Schenectady, a man removes his glasses, and puts them back on, then blows a smoke ring. This was the worlds first television broadcast. It was broadcasted into three homes. On that afternoon GE's Swedish engineer, Ernst Alexanderson laid the foundation for one of the most powerful media in history. Ever since the invention of the radio in the early 1920's, the race had been on to combine and transmit sound with moving images. Two years before Alexanderson's demonstration, John Logie Baird used a mechanical scanner to transmit a flickering image of a human head. Four months after Alexanderson's transmission, the company was broadcasting images three times a week. Then in 1937 an electronic system using the cathode-ray tube was adopted by the BBC in England. The 1947 broadcast of the World Series got viewers attention of the growing impotance of TV. By the end of the 1950's, nearly 90 percent o f the U.S homes had at least one TV set. I think everybody in the world should own a television. Without the television people would not have witnessed many important events in history. For example, Neil Armstrong landing on the moon and Lee Harvey Alswald getting shot. The first cathode-ray reciever was invented in 1907, the first electronic camera in 1923, the first moving-picture transmition in 1925, first TV station in 1936, first news show in 1948, first color set in 1951, first videotape recorder in 1956, first communication satellite in 1962, and HDTV in 1998. In the future TV's will replace phones and hand-held ones will replace cell phones s...

The top reasons HR is important to an organization

The top reasons HR is important to an organization These days, effective businesses take every aspect of their organization seriously and have dedicated professionals across their teams who work towards a common goal- supporting the business and positioning it for lasting success.One important team in the mix is human resources (HR), who often serve â€Å"behind the scenes† as the backbone of an organization. Their responsibilities are often essential for a business to operate effectively, and they’re at the front lines of some core business functions- from staffing and recruiting to ensuring that the needs of existing employees are capably met, and more.In fact, according to a recent article by The Balance, â€Å"A  good HR department  is critical to an employee-oriented, productive workplace in which employees are energized and engaged.† Let’s explore some of the key reasons why HR is so important to an organization.Office cultureIn many ways, HR helps set the tone of an office’s culture, incl uding everything from permissible ways of dressing to setting work hours and workplace processes. HR establishes all of those little things that help define a work environment and shape what an average day on the job is like, which helps cement an employee’s identification and thoughts on the organization at large, as well as how they’re perceived from the outside.Staff recruitmentWe all know how important having a top-tier staff is to an organization’s success, and the HR department is directly responsible for ensuring that the very best available candidates are pursued and recruited for all open positions. They also work to ensure that the reputation of the company they work for is such that it attracts top-level talent in the industry- not an easy feat in today’s ultra-competitive corporate landscape. According to The Balance, â€Å"HR is responsible for the overall recruiting of a superior workforce. Once again, HR cannot do it alone but must provide support to  hiring managers  who are also responsible for recruiting a  superior workforce. HR must provide  leadership, training, scheduling assistance, a  systematic hiring process,  recruitment planning processes, interview expertise, selection monitoring, and more.†hbspt.cta.load(2785852, '9e52c197-5b5b-45e6-af34-d56403f973c5', {});Employee benefits and perksAll of those things that come alongside an employee’s salary when they’re offered a compensation package are likely thanks to the company’s HR team, all designed to attract the best and brightest crop of employees (and in many companies, HR staff even help to set salary ranges for open positions by providing competitive market analysis). Everything from insurance benefits to vacation time, team building activities, and transportation and education reimbursement- to name just a few- can fall under their purview, and the better they are at their jobs the better they’ll be able to research, identify, and negotiate great perks to attract talent.Employee issue resolutionIn general, most of us don’t exactly look forward to having difficult or challenging personal issues that require the guidance or intervention of others, but when we do have them and they affect our work, we’re usually grateful that we have the folks in the HR department to turn to. They not only lend their expertise and experience to help deal with whatever the issue is, they can also be real advocates and allies during a difficult situation.Although the roles and responsibilities of HR departments vary across companies and industries, hopefully by now it’s clear that they play a crucial role in most organization’s operational efficiency, as well as their immediate and long-term successes.

Health system policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Health system policy - Essay Example Providing care to patients infected by resistant organisms invariably leads to considerable cost not only on the part of the patient, but also on the care providers. To reduce the cost, morbidity, mortality, and stakeholder dissatisfaction, therefore, administrative strategies have been used at the government and policy levels. These policies have significant implications towards solving these problems in the healthcare. For example, it has been noted that control of antibiotic usage, pharmacy or infectious diseases consultation for antibiotic usage, surveillance of resistance rates of specific and prevalent pathogens, development of institutional infection control policies and guidelines, all may cause a decline in healthcare associated infection rates (Johnston. and Bryce, 2009). Policy only is not sufficient; in fact surveillance of policy implementation and evaluation of policy is a very important aspect of health system infection control policy. Almost in all countries including Australia, numerous hospital-based strategies have been developed and implemented in order to prevent such infections. Some of these policies have been tested also. In some cases these guidelines are augmented with regular updates to frame specific and mandatory guidelines that aim at prevention of transmission of pathogenic bacteria to people who are ill otherwise within the hospital based healthcare setting. Several studies unfortunately indicate gaps in implementation of these policies since there were variabilities in practices and outcomes (Reingold, 1998). The CDC initiated study on nosocomial infection control policies identified the positive roles of infection control components in reducing the hospital-associated infection rates. Although this was conducted in a different country, it successfully identified the four main

Final Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Final Exam - Essay Example For instance, the government of UAE has a tendency of overstaffing departments. In most of these cases, these individuals do not have the necessary educational backgrounds and experiences to fit, in these departments. The need to overstaff government departments and agencies arise from the unemployment rates (Jabbra & Jabbra 137). Additionally, this need arises from the country’s dependence on oil production and economy. Recent efforts focusing on branching out face stiff competition and resistance from the oil industry and government activities directed towards the oil industry. Few non-energy based businesses face challenges in thriving in this economy because they lack the work force that has been concentrated, in the energy industry. The complexity and rigidity of rules in UAE further provide challenges to the adoption of Western governmental cultures. These rules are developed with an aim of concentrating power and growing the size of the government. This has led to an in crease in unethical practices such as nepotism, corruption and misuse of public resources and office. The government or public sector creates immense job opportunities for the UAE residents. However, these jobs are usually open for UAE residents. For instance, Etisalat, which is a semi governmental corporation, is overstaffed with UAE residents (Jabbra & Jabbra 140). ... For instance, in 2010, the government was rocked with several corruption scandals that threatened its administrative processes. The size and extent of power, in UAE government, facilitate instances of corruption. In addition, corruption is a crucial issue in government owned corporations especially in the oil and telecommunication industries. Though corruption is not as rampant as in other states, it occurs through careless and unscrupulous businesses. It is essential to note that administrative processes in UAE occur in an environment that does not facilitate accountability (Jabbra & Jabbra 141). The administrative environment in UAE does not have proper checks, balances, and appropriate safeguards that can prevent these instances of corruption. As public servants carry out their official duties, they lack accountability for their behaviors and actions, which favors instances of corruption. Establishing accountability in administrative processes is a crucial tool and strategy in red ucing the unenthusiastic effects of corruption. In this case, all public servants will be accountable for their actions and decisions. This ensures that these public servants reach decisions that aim at improving their departments. Accountability is essential because workers become answerable for their decisions and actions (Jabbra & Jabbra 138). Additionally, it creates awareness that negative actions, behaviors and decisions lead to possible legal proceedings. Accountability will also help in addressing bureaucracy because it helps in the development of a functional administrative structure with spelt out duties and responsibilities for each administrative function. Question 3 In my opinion, public administration is both an art and science. Public

Political Ideology Essay Example for Free

Political Ideology Essay Abstract: Are these heady days for Nigerian political parties? This is the main question, which this paper addresses with emphasis on political ideology, being the first and most important vehicle of a political party. It is argued that despite all pretences to the contrary through their manifestoes, as much as the superficial classifications as the â€Å"left† and â€Å"right†, â€Å"progressive† and â€Å"conservative†, Nigerian parties seem to be bereft of clear ideological commitments. This conclusion is predicated upon the relegation of politics of issues to the background across the various republics, and in its place the ascendancy of identity and money politics. Other factors include the rising magnitude of political vagrancy on the basis of selfish and parochial interests, the high level of party indiscipline, absence/weakness of party cohesion and internal democracy, and the high mortality and turnover of party leadership. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of this for Nigeria’s democratization and democratic consolidation, before concluding with some recommendations. 1. Introduction. Are these heady days for Nigerian political parties? It does not seem so. Although, the decade of the 1990s witnessed the massive spread of what Huntington (1991) referred to as the â€Å"third wave† of democratization to Africa, including Nigeria, leading to an unprecedented resurgence of multiparty politics, there is no controversy about the fact that the mere adoption of party pluralism will not automatically advance the cause of democracy without the institutionalization of certain institutional parameters to promote and sustain due process in theory and practice (See, Bratton and Van de Walle, 1992; 1997; Sorensen, 612 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 1993). One of the most complex and critical institutions of democracy is political party. Political parties, as â€Å"makers† of democracy, have been so romanticized that scholars have claimed that neither democracy nor democratic societies are thinkable without them. They not only perform functions that are government related, such as making government accountable and exercising control over government administration; and electorate related functions such as political representation, expression of people’s demand through interest articulation and aggregation as well as structuring of electoral choices; but also linkage related functions, playing an intermediary and mediatory role between the government and the electorate (see, Moore, 2002; Lapalombara and Anderson, 2001; Simon, 1962). Following Omotola (2005a) and Egwu (2005), Saliu and Omotola (2006) have pointed out that political parties can only cope effectively with these responsibilities to the extent of their political institutionalization in terms of structure, internal democracy, cohesion and discipline, as much as their autonomy. The element of party autonomy is very crucial. For, as Alli Mari Tripp has argued, and rightly so, those organizations that have asserted the greatest autonomy have generally been able to â€Å"select their own leaders, push for far-reaching agendas, and involve themselves in politics to a greater extent than organizations that have been tied to the regime/or dominant party, either formally or through informal patronage networks† (Tripp, 2001:101). A note of caution is necessary here to avoid confusion. The relationship between political parties and the state is a complex one. This is because it is the party that forms the government, the latter being the institution of the state. To now talk of a hard-line demarcation between the two may be unrealistic. Yet, the relationship should be well defined such that political parties, especially the one in power, as a critical segment of both the state and society, can enjoy some reasonable degree of â€Å"societal autonomy†, the absence of which poses serious threats to â€Å"political liberalization, democratization and democratic consolidation† (Tripp, 2001:105). In such a situation, multiparty democracy can be adapted for the â€Å"politicization of ethnicity and further 613 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria elite enrichment encouraging a confrontational and divisive system† (cf Dicklitch, 2002:205). The import of the foregoing discussion, to take a cue from Saliu and Omotola (2006:2), is that the level of political institutionalization of political parties and their institutional strengths are directly correlated to their ability to discharge their ascribed responsibilities, and by extension, the strengths of democracy. When well institutionalized, political parties can serve as a set of mediating institutions through which differences in ideas, interests and perception of political problems at a given time can be managed (Olagunju, 2000; Omotola, 2005a). However, when the reverse is the case, the democracy project and the general system stand the risk of perversion and eventual breakdown. Whatever the case, it is important to note that at the very heart of the success or otherwise of political party is the important question of political ideology. The issue of ideology has been so central to the activities of political parties across time and space that Anson D. Morse (1896:76) has argued that ideology, being the durable convictions held in common by party members in respect to the most desirable form, institutions, spirit and course of action of the state, determines the natural attitude of a party towards every public question (cf. Iyare, 2004:81). In an incisive piece on â€Å"political party convention†, Richard Davies and Vincent J. Strickler (1996:1025) similarly argue that â€Å"ideology functions as planks†, that is, single issue statements within the platform, the exact ideological orientation of which is often used as a bargaining chip in seeking party unity. Here, the platform connotes a statement of the official party position on a variety of issues. Okudiba Nnoli (2003:177-82) also concludes that ideology is a very crucial aspect of politics, not only by serving as a cognitive structure for looking at society generally and providing a prescriptive formula, that is, a guide to individual action and judgement, but also as a powerful instrument of conflict management, selfidentification, popular mobilization and legitimization. It may, therefore, be correct to assert that the first and most important vehicle of a political party, under an ideal situation, should be its ideological stance. 614 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria In reality, however, this is seldom the case. Perhaps, due to the shallowness of democratic roots especially in the developing countries, other forces of identity particularly ethnicity and religion would appear to have taken the place of ideology. The rising influence of money politics represents another crucial limiting dimension (see, Nugent, 2001a: 2001b; 2001c; 1999; 1995; Gros, 1998; Omotola, 2004). What is the situation with Nigerian parties? Put differently, do Nigerian parties have ideology? How has its ideological condition shaped and influenced the course of party politics in the country? The main thrust of this chapter is to critically engage these questions with a view to suggesting ways of reviving and raising the consciousness of Nigerian parties with regard to the centrality of ideology to party activities and effectiveness. The paper is organized into a number of sections. Firstly, it will analyze the place of ideology in political theory. The second substantive section situates Nigerian parties in historical perspectives, tracing briefly their origin and growth as a precursor to the analysis of the place of ideology in Nigerian parties across different epochs. The last substantive part of the paper, drawing on its immediate preceding section, engages the central question of whether Nigerian parties have ideology or not. It is argued that despite all pretences to the contrary through their manifestoes, as much as the superficial classifications as the â€Å"left† and â€Å"right†, â€Å"progressive† and â€Å"conservative† parties, Nigerian parties seem to be bereft of clear ideological commitments. This conclusion is predicated upon the relegation of politics of issues to the background across the various republics, and in its place the ascendancy of identity and money politics. Other factors include the rising magnitude of political vagrancy on the basis of selfish and parochial interests, the high level of party indiscipline, absence/weakness of party cohesion and internal democracy, and the high mortality and turnover of party leadership. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of this for Nigeria’s democratization and democratic consolidation, before concluding. 615 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 2. Ideology and Political Theory. Ideology represents a typically crucial element of political parties and their activities. It is a set of ideas about politics, all of which are related to one another and that modify and support each other. Though relatively enduring, it is yet a dynamic phenomenon, capable of being modified by new issues. It was in this light that Philips W. Shively (1997) defines an ideology as â€Å"a continually developing, organized set of ideas about politics that helps us to make sense of the myriad of political questions that face use†. For Okudiba Nnoli, ideology typifies â€Å"a systematized and interconnected set of ideas about the socio-economic and political organization of society as a whole† (Nnoli, 2003: 178). The concept of ideology, is, historically, deeply rooted in political theory. As a concept, it was coined by the late eighteenth century French philosopher, Destutt de Tracy (1754 – 1836). According to Nnoli (2003:177), Destutt de Tracy used it to describe a new scientific discipline that systematically studies ideas, emotions and sensations – the science of ideas. This conception has since changed and ideology has come to embody the ideas themselves. As a result of the changes, ideology has come to be presented as a subject representing two contradictory realities – the good and the bad, the former depicting ideology as â€Å"a system of thought that animates social or political action†, and the latter as a â€Å"misleading, illusory or one-sided criticism or condemnation† (cf Nnoli, 2003:178-79). This was the kind of debate that dominated political discourse in the midnineteenth century. For instance, in their: The German Ideology, Marx and Engels (1960) took a swipe at Hegel and his-co-travelers, describing them as ideologists of the bourgeois system, not articulate about the material conditions of social and political life. Yet, they went ahead to articulate another conception of ideology based on class analysis as a device for articulating the conflicting interests of different social classes (Nnoli, 2003:178). 616 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria. From whatever perspective one looks as it, the reality of political life across political systems, developed or developing, is the fact of multiple political options from which inevitably, choice(s) must be made. At such critical crossroads, ideology provides a ready guide for appropriate action. Philips W. Shively posits that ideology is useful to people, both for their own personal ease and satisfaction and for their public political activities. At the individual level, ideology helps to make sense reasonably easily and quickly of the varied political questions that come to one’s attention. In terms of its public utilities, it helps people to make persuasive arguments convincingly to enlist popular support for a given public policy (Shively, 1997:46 – 47). On the whole, therefore, ideology is an indispensable element of politics. It does not only serve as a major instrument of state power, playing major role in the acquisition, use and consolidation of power, but also functions as political lifeline for the animation of politics, forcing individuals and groups alike to make political judgment, especially in the face of competing and conflicting divides, as between capitalism and socialism, during the Cold War. On these notes, Nnoli (2003:181-83) summarizes the functions of ideology as that of providing: A cognitive structure for looking at society generally, be serving as an explanatory and justificatory category for societal realities; A prescriptive formula – a guide to individual action and judgment as a basis for the legitimization of public polities when in conformity with popular belief; An instrument of conflict management and the integration of society by limiting the basic values and issues over which societal members and disagree; A means of self-identification for the satisfaction of specific personality needs, a means of self-evaluation and social solidarity; A dynamic force in both individual and collective commitment action for or against the ruling class or decision. That is, it provides a powerful basis for mobilization; 617 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria Enhancement of the political appeals of a political party, by differentiating one party from another; and Negatively, may serve not only as a serious impediment to national integration and suppress the underprivileged, but also to disguise authoritarian rule. This is because, it tends to provide individuals with â€Å"imaginary avenues of escape from the harsh realities of social life† (Nnoli, 2003:183). It is important to note that ideologies do have certain defining attributes. Most notable among these include the fact that they are not simply the creation of those who hold them. Rather, they tend to take on a life of their own and guide the political views of their holders in unanticipated ways (see, Price and Sullivan, 1980; Freeden, 1996). In most cases, ideologies originate from seemingly irreconcilable antagonistic settings, tend to be exclusive, absolute and universal in character; and can be personalized and turned into a sacred belief similar to religious beliefs. While it is not entirely permanent, it is, however, resistant to fundamental changes (see, Sibley, 1970; Nnoli, 2003; Enemuo, 1999). Some illustrations suffice. Across time and space, various forms of ideologies have emerged at different times, Marxism and not in the least, African socialism. For space constraints, we can not examine each of these here. It is however important to note that most of these ideologies do fit correctly to the aforementioned attributes. For instance, almost all such ideologies such as conservatism and socialism emerged in situation of acute social strain, in response to liberalism and capitalism respectively. While liberalism emphasizes individualism (freedom, liberty), conservatism harps on collectivism characteristic of welfarist states. Despite their long history, attacks and counterattacks against each other, both liberalism and conservation still remain prominent ideologies in western democracies particularly the United States of American and Great Britain (see, Rudolph, Jr. , 1996; Kay, 1976). Today, the emphasis in political theory is predominantly on democratic ideology. David Howarth 618 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria defines a democratic ideology as one involving the classification and analysis of different types of democratic ideologies, as they are articulated and function in concrete societies. It includes various democratic forms and institutions as capitalist/liberal democracy and radical democracy. It also reflects on the differences within a given type such as direct and indirect variants of liberal democracy (Howarth, 2001: 191-94). Essentially, democratic ideology centers on the way in which the language and rhetoric of democracy function as a tool of ideological justification and legitimization by political elites and ruling classes. It also focuses on cultural and ethnical conditions for the proper functioning of liberal democratic states and societies, requiring in the least, a belief in or at least an acceptance of democracy (see, Putnam, 1993; 1995; 1996). Above all, democratic ideology typifies the use of democracy by social groups and political forces to constitute their identities and advance their interests. Here, according to Howarth (2001:193), â€Å"democracy is itself a key ideological element in political mobilization and struggle, and is used to create political frontiers between differently located social groups and agencies. Democratic ideology therefore captures the whole essence of our theoretical postulations on the centrality of ideology to the exploits of political parties. What needs to be added is that an umbrella party (Catch-All Party) that seeks to appeal to diverse interests, usually by adopting a general or vague platform, may not necessarily stick to only one ideology and vice versa. This is the case in the United States where in the two dominant parties – Democrats and Republican – there are Liberals, Moderates and Conservatives. The reverse is the case in Great Britain where the Labour and Conservative parties are each highly centralized and less catch-all in nature than American parties (see, Rudolph, Jr. , 1996: 1021). Yet, in either case, the parties are known for their well-defined and distinct ideologies. 619 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 3. Origin and Growth of Nigerian Parties Philips, W. Shively (1997:200) observed that although political party had turned to be useful for a variety of tasks that require control or communication, it was first invented for more limited and self serving purposes. This observation aptly captures the Nigerian reality. At its inception in 1923, precisely 24 June, 1923, following the introduction of the elective principle by the Clifford constitution, Nigerian parties had very limited and self-serving objectives. The main objective was perhaps, that of buying legitimacy for the colonial government through very limited franchise restricted to Lagos and Calabar. Richard Sklar, in his seminal work – Nigerian Political Parties – demonstrates articulately how the emergence of political associations such as the People’s Union, was only in response to the prevailing realities of colonial administration (Sklar, 1963; Coleman, 1958). Little wonder, when the first political party in Nigeria, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) emerged in 1923, under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay, its activities were restricted to contesting elections into the Lagos city council. For years, the UNDP was hegemonic in its dominance in electoral politics in the country. This was to be challenged by the Lagos Youth Movement latter Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)- formed in 1934 and defeated the NNDP for the three seats allocated to Lagos that year. By 1944, the increasing tempo of nationalist agitation had resulted in the formation of another political party – the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (CNCN), under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay and later Nnamdi Azikwe (see, Sklar, 1968: 46-50). This was followed, in quick succession, by the transformation of the Egbe Omo Oduduwa, a Yoruba sociocultural organization, into a political party, the Action Group (AG) in 1950 under the leadership of Chief Obafemi Awolowo and the Northern People Congress (NPC) in 1959 with dominance in the northern region. By 1951, a breakaway faction of the NPC consisting mainly of radical youths based in Kano formed the Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU). These parties dominated the political landscape of the country particularly in their respective regions in the 620 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria march towards independence and in the First Republic (see, Dudley, 1973; Sklar, 1963). Although the Second Republic (1979 – 1983) witnessed the emergence of more political parties, there was no much difference with what obtained under the First Republic. Rather, what happened was the reincarnation of parties of the First Republic under different nomenclatures with some additional parties. The parties included the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) and the Nigerian Peoples Party (NPP) replacing the NPC, AG and NCNC, respectively. Others were the Peoples Redemption Party (PRP) and Great Nigerian Peoples Party (GNPP), and later Nigerian Advance Party (NAP), which was registered in 1982, after failing the first round in 1978 (Osaghae, 1998). These parties constituted major actors in the Second Republic. Under the aborted Third Republic, there was a fundamental change in the mode of party formation in Nigeria. This pertains to the official formation of parties by the state after a series of experiments with different political associations (see, Oyediran and Agbaje, 1991). The parties were the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and National Republican Convention (NRC), the former being a little to the left and the latter a little to the right (see, Olagunju, et al, 1993:216; Omoruyi, 2002). This development, executed after the dissolution of the thirteen associations that applied for registration has been as part of the grand design to execute a â€Å"hidden agenda† to perpetuate the military regime in power (Osaghae, 1998:220). The eventual annulment of the 12 June 1993 presidential election by the military regime of general Babangida lends some credence to this claim. The country once again returned to multi-party democracy in 1999 following the transition inaugurated and successfully completed by General Abdulsalm Abubakar. Initially, three political parties – Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP), later All Nigerian People Party (ANPP), and the Alliance for Democracy (AD) were registered by the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). By December 2002, the number of registered parties rose to thirty (30), while additional three 621 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria political parties were registered in January/February 2006 (see, Simbine, 2005; Onu and Momoh, 2005). This presupposes the opening up of the political space for democratic opportunities and development. But in reality, the opportunities associated with such openings are yet to be positively exploited for the political development of the country. This may not be unconnected with the poverty of ideology that characterizes Nigerian parties, as will be demonstrated in the next section. 4. Nigerian Parties and Ideological Dispositions Let us begin with parties of the First Republic, that is, the NPC, NCNC and AG. Ideologically, the NPC was an essentially conservative and elitist party, while the AG and NCNC appeared to be progressive and welfarist, predicated upon socialist ideology. Even at that, it may be difficult to delineate the very ideological orientation of these parties. They, however, share a common feature of ethno-regional ideology, seeking to capture and consolidate power in their respective spheres of influence/region. They were also driven by a commitment to the nationalist struggle, though in varying degrees, against colonialism. The ambiguity as regards their ideological disposition can further be gleaned from the pattern of alignment between/among the parties. For example, the resolve of the NPC and NCNC, two ideologically incompatible parties, the former to the right and the latter to the left, to enter into the alliance that formed the government during the First republic attests to this. Scholars have pointed out that the alliance was a â€Å"marriage of inconvenience†, and would have been better between the AG and NCNC. Because the alliance was not informed by a commitment to a belief system and principles espoused by party ideology, it crumbled, sooner than expected, like a park of cards (see, Dudley, 1993; Post and Vickers, 1973; Olaniyi, 1997:87). In terms of ideological orientations, parties of the Second Republic would appear, safe for the GNPP, to be the reincarnations of the parties of the moribund First Republic. 622 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria For this and related reasons, there were no fundamental differences in party politics and activities, as the country was â€Å"once again mired in a vituperative and vicious politics† (Yaqub, 2002; 125). This was graphically captured by the unprecedented pace of intra and inter-party factionalization and conflicts. Political vagrancy permeates the political landscape, leaving in its wake major realignments and coalitions among the parties (see, Osaghae, 1998:139 – 44). Notably, the formation of the so-called forum of the â€Å"progressive† governors consisting of PRP, GNPP, NPP and UPN was unable to survive long, as the ruling NPN used its federal might and patronage to attract decampees from other parties. Eventually, it succeeded in wooing the NPP of the East, in a manner reminiscent of the First Republic into an alliance, which like the earlier one, collapsed sooner than expected. The eventual breakdown of the alliance marked the beginning of internal crisis for the NPP, following the refusal of some of its top leaders particularly Mathew Mbu and Professor Ishaya Audu to resign their appointments in government (Osaghae, 1998:140). Logically, it may be argued that if the parties had been guided by a clear commitment to a particular belief system and principles, much of the crisis and contradictions that characterized party politics under the Second Republic could have been averted. But, since the parties were motivated largely by ethnic competition for power through their respective ethnic champions, nothing more could have been expected. As Osaghae has argued, while the instrumentalist†, to the attainment of this feat (1998:144). The degeneration of party politics through political vagrancy, elite factionalization and weak institutionalization led to the military coup of December 31, 1983 that brought the Second Republic into an abrupt end. Yet, the NPP and GNPP appeared to be liberal in ideology with a strong belief in mixed economy; the NPN conservative with emphasis on free market system and respect for traditional institutions. The PRP, a leftist and most radical party had a populist, antineocolonial agenda and advocates social revolution and income redistribution; and the UPN; the most disciplined, socialist/welfarist in orientation was based on the 623 J Shola Omotola, MS., Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria philosophy of free education and heath care delivery (see, Ujo, 2000:91-102; Osaghae, 1998:118-122). The aborted Third Republic witnessed a new experiment in party formation, when for the first time in the history of party politics in Nigeria; the government created and imposed two political parties on the system. Ordinarily, the existence of two political parties should represent two different ideological camps, as has been the case between the Labour and Conservative parties in Britain and Democrats and Republican parties in the USA. This was not the case with respect to the SDP and NRC in Nigeria. Although, while one was a little to the left and other a little to the right, nothing much differentiates the parties, at least not in ideological dispositions (see, Jinadu, 1995; Lewis, 1994; Oyediran and Agbaje, 1991; Adejumobi, 1997). Yaqub (2002:128) had written about party politics under the Third Republic that: The way incompatibility had been manifested in the two parties †¦ was not fundamentally due to serious ideological divisions (in any case, the manifestoes of the parties, despite phrase – mongering of â€Å"a little to the left†, and â€Å"a little to the right†, did not articulate much programme differences), but to assert, that even if we are to borrow Babangida’s words, the â€Å"old lines of cleavages and primordial loyalties† once again simply asserted themselves. If parties of previous republics were found wanting on ideological stance and commitment, those of the Fourth Republic are obviously worse. Omoruyi (2002:8) has noted that the manner of origin of the parties does not fit into what we know from literature, their composition fluid and unstable, and can be viewed as mere instruments of transition from military to civil rule. And for the future and with the prospect for more parties, â€Å"they raise more questions than answers to the lingering political problems for Nigeria†. According to him, the PDP, for example, draws its founders from â€Å"all and sundry political persuasions: conservatives, radicals and progressives† (Ghali – Na’bba, 624 J Shola Omotola, MS., Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria 2001: cf Omoruyi, 2002:8), most of whom supported the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential election and flirted with the military during the annulment and in the post-annulment period; including some serving as ministers or members of the ING or as member of the Abacha undemocratic constitutional conference or as leaders of some of the five political parties set up and managed by General Abacha’s aides that finally endorsed him as the sole presidential candidate in April 1998 (Omoruyi, 2002:8-9). The APP did not differ in any respect as its founders also served as ministers or as aides in different parts of the country under Abacha. The AD that looks different was, however, affected by its inability to meet the federal character clause in the constitution and up till today remains essentially a Yoruba party. It was perhaps the foregoing faulty origin and precarious foundations of these parties that have been largely responsible for their seeming ideological barrenness. Although, the PDP and APP (ANPP) were status quo parties, given their capitalist and conservative dispositions; and the AD progressive and radical in appearance, none of them seems to have clear policy positions as a basis of popular mobilization and legitimacy of their actions. Judging by their activities, it has been observed that â€Å"there’s almost nothing to chose, between PDP and other parties in terms of ideological learning† (Iyare, 2004:92). Simbine (2002:2005:23) has also observed that the manifestoes of the first three political parties were â€Å"essentially the same in content†, as they were not crafted differently, and the strategies for achieving objectives did not differentiate parties from each other. In a seeming self-indictment passage, Jerry Gana, a former Minister of Information and PDP stalwart observes: In terms of cohesion and firm ideological learning, there is a problem but PDP will be transformed, PDP will be strong, PDP will be strengthened ideological, PDP will be more organized, PDP will be in power for 30 years (quoted in Iyare, 2004:94). 625 J Shola Omotola, MS. , Redeemer’s University, Move, Ogun State, Nigeria Given the obvious poverty of ideology that characterizes the first three political parties of the Fourth Republic, PDP, APP and AD, it should not be surprising that almost all the other parties that sprang up or broke away from them did no do so because of ideological disagreements. Neither was it that they have articulated alternative views of governance for sustainable democracy and development as a viable basis of popular mobilization to wrestle power from the incumbent party. Rather, they were products of adversarial elite behaviour taken to the points of irreconcilability. Little wonder, these parties also have no ideological stance on major national questions other than the transformation and manipulation of forces of identity particularly ethnicity and religion (see, Simbine, 2005). The implication is that the â€Å"so-called political parties are not in competition with one another. They are in factions; these factions are more in competition within themselves than with another party† (Omoruyi, 2002:17). An informed observer and consistent scholar of Nigerian politics captures the scenario thus: Unfortunately, the succeeding generations of party leaders, despite having their forbearers’ legacies to draw from and better educational background into the bargain, have not demonstrated this perspicacity.

The lamb to the slaughter and The speckled band :: English Literature

Wide Reading: The lamb to the slaughter and The speckled band For me, a good murder mystery needs to contain a mixture of aspects. Like in mid-summer murders and Morse it needs to include the following things, a good setting, there needs to be a good setting so that it sets up the whole of the story, it needs to be somewhere quiet and peaceful. The characters need to be strong characters that all relate to each other, there also needs to be a twist in the characters to add depth an mystery, perhaps the last clue to the murderer. The murderer has to be someone unexpected, someone who perhaps wasn't the strongest character. The victim has to be someone who has mystery but perhaps gave the killer reason to, so you might feel that they deserved it but you might have sympathy for, it also needs to be someone you least expect to be killed, perhaps the stronger character. And the detective has to be someone who everyone can sort of relate to, who has a slight mystery behind him or her so that even when you think you know them there is a skeleton in their closet. The murder weapon has to be something of power and something that represents some element in the play. It also has to be something unexpected like an exotic animal or as in lamb to the slaughter, a leg of lamb! Also the plot has to be thick and unexpected, with plenty of twists and red herrings. It also needs to make the reader feel included in the story so you feel as if you were there. Finally the ending of the story has to be meaningful and it needs to draw a conclusion. The killer has to be found, the reasons to be explained and the murder it self be told and what happened prior to the event. This finishes off what happened and lets us draw our own conclusions, although for a good murder mystery something's need to be left a mystery. I am going to compare the different areas in each story. I shall be comparing the following  · Settings  · Characters The settings for Lamb To The Slaughter and The Speckled Band a very different. The setting for the speckled band is in Victorian England, in the earlier 1900's. it is set in a country town, in a big mansion. A wealthy family lives in it. It is torn apart by deceit, greed and the death of the lady of the household. The back ground to the story goes a little something like this. The lady of the Stoke morans first

The Burden Of Mental Disorders Health And Social Care Essay

Worldwide, the load of mental upsets is immense and at least comparable to the load caused by many terrible physical diseases [ 1 ] . In the WHO Global Burden of Disease undertaking it was estimated that 50 % of all Disability Adjusted Life Years ( DALY ‘s ) in the 15-44 old ages old are due to psychiatry-related conditions [ 2 ] . Recently, depressive upsets were projected to rank 2nd on a list of 15 major diseases in footings of load of disease in 2030 [ 3 ] . In malice of the many available effectual interventions, they have limited possible to cut down the entire load of mental unwellness [ 4 ] . It has been estimated that the maximal decrease of the entire load of mental disease that can be achieved by intervention in optimum scenes is merely 40 % [ 5 ] . Therefore, bar of mental upsets is indispensable. An extra statement for beef uping the function of preventative psychopathology in public wellness is the fact that at the population degree, a significant portion of the costs are caused by new instances. The new instances account for 39.2 % of the costs at the population degree [ 6 ] . Unfortunately, there are soon few possibilities for the primary or selective bar of mental disease in the non-referred population. Because grownup mental diseases have their beginnings early in life [ 7 ] , primary bar can be most effectual if started early in childhood, or even before. Indeed, bar of psychosocial jobs may get down before birth.1.4 Gevolgen new wave psychopathologie tijdens de zwangerschapThere is strong grounds that, in line with Barker ‘s â€Å" foetal beginnings of grownup disease † hypothesis [ a ] , an inauspicious mental province of a female parent during gestation is an of import and modifiable hazard factor for psychosocial jobs in her kids. The nexus between prenatal maternal negative emotions and behavioural and emotional ( ‘psychosocial ‘ ) jobs in the progeny has been demonstrated in legion carnal surveies and, more late, in worlds. Two recent reappraisals summarize the consequences of this research [ 8 ] [ 9 ] . Numerous surveies evidenced that there is a positive association between prenatal anxiousness or depression in the female parent, and cognitive, behavioural and emotional jobs in the kid. For illustration, in a big survey ( N=7448 ) prenatal anxiousness of the female parent was related to behavioural or emotional jobs of 4-year-old kids, independent of the female parent ‘s postpartum depression or anxiousness [ 10 ] . Anxiety in gestation has been related to delayed mental and motor development, independent of the female parent ‘s postpartum emphasis and depression degrees [ 11 ] . The inauspicious effects seem to be permanent: higher anxiousness degrees of the female parents early in gestation were related to an addition in ADHD and other projecting jobs in their 8-9 twelvemonth old kids [ 12 ] . An addition in criminalism in the male progeny of female parents who suffered antenatal depression was observed by Maki et al [ 13 ] . Davis and colleagues demonstrated that maternal antenatal anxiousness and depression were associated with an unfavorable disposition, i.e. infant negative responsiveness which in bend is related to behavioural suppression and societal anxiousness [ 14 ] . Chung et Al found that depression in gestation is associated with growing deceleration, premature birth and more extradural analgesia during bringing. Children of these adult females are more likely to be admitted on a NICU [ 15 ] . Although the mechanisms have non been to the full elucidated, the emphasis endocrine hydrocortisone, which besides seems to play a function in grownup abnormal psychology, has been proposed as the primary biological go-between [ 9 ] . Elevated maternal hydrocortisone degrees might take to cut down development of the kid. LeWinn and others found that higher maternal hydrocortisone degrees during gestation are associated with decreased childhood IQ [ 16 ] . Other mechanisms such as intoxicant and nicotine ingestion in gestation [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] and the effects of the postpartum mental status of the female parent ( e.g. with effects for suckling [ 20 ] [ 21 ] ) may be runing every bit good [ 22 ] . Whatever the existent mechanisms involved are, there is soon convincing grounds that kids whose female parents suffered from anxiousness or depression during gestation constitute a high hazard group for behavioural and emotional jobs. Early designation and intervention, and sooner even bar of the maternal mental wellness jobs would assist to forestall the same type of jobs in the progeny.1.5 Antenatale depressieUntil pubescence, rates of depression are approximately equal in male childs and misss, but from adolescence on, misss suffer about twice every bit frequently of depression than male childs, a rate which remains changeless until climacteric, after which it bit by bit declines [ 23 ] [ 24 ] . During gestation around 10-20 % of all adult females are enduring from depression or anxiousness, a prevalence that is basically similar to the prevalence outside gestation [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] . Known hazard factors for prenatal depression are immature maternal age [ 26 ] , being multipara with a history of obstetric complication [ 33 ] , cohabitating [ 34 ] , low societal support [ 35 ] [ 36 ] , major life events [ 37 ] , low income [ 38 ] and a history of physical and/or sexual maltreatment [ 37 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] . Niet gebruikte refnrs: [ 39 ] [ 43 ] [ 45 ]1.6 Antenatale angststoornisAlthough there is a batch more known about depression during gestation, anxiousness upsets are the most common psychiatric upsets in grownups. Anxiety upsets have a 12-month prevalence estimated at 18 % , and are more frequently seen in adult females [ 42 ] . A recent reappraisal found that anxiousness upsets are common during the perinatal period, with rates of generalised anxiousness upset being higher during the perinatal period ( 8,5 % in the 3rd trimester ) than in the general population [ 44 ] . Because depression and anxiousness often co-occur [ 46 ] , it is likely that adult females who report depressive symptoms during gestation besides experience symptoms of anxiousness. Furthermore, anxiousness upsets are common in the absence of depression, peculiarly in adult females [ 47 ] , and the average age of oncoming of many anxiousness upsets is at a child-bearing age [ 48 ] . Harmonizing to Moss et Al, hazard factors for anxiousness may be similar to those of depression in pregnant adult females but this requires farther research [ 49 ] .1.7 Socio-economische positieThe socio-economic place ( SEP ) is traditionally defined as â€Å" the comparative place of a household or person on a hierarchal societal construction, based on their entree to or command over wealth, prestigiousness and power † [ 50 ] . Different mensurable facets of SEP are normally used in research, such as educational degree, occupational position and income. Educational degree represents cognition, a ccomplishments, attitudes and values that can act upon health-related behaviour. Occupational position is an index of working conditions, power and wellness. Income is associated with material wellbeing and ability to devour goods and services, required for a healthy life [ 51 ] [ 52 ] . These different facets of SEP are known to be positively correlated [ 53 ] . A low SEP seems to be a hazard factor for anxiousness symptoms after gestation [ 54 ] , although other surveies found no important association between composite SEP and depressive symptoms during gestation [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] . In contrast, in a recent reappraisal, Lancaster et Al. presented that both a lower educational degree as a low income have a little association with depression during gestation, but non important in their multivariate analyses [ B ] . Unemployment was non even significantly associated with depression during gestation in bivariate analysis [ B ] .1.8 Life eventsHarmonizing to Grant et Al and Evans, the chronic psychological emphasis ensuing from a low SEP may be associated with a high exposure to life stressors [ hundred ] [ vitamin D ] . What is known about the association of major negative life events and anxiety/depression during gestation?1.9 Doel new wave dot onderzoekHypothesis Low socio-economic place is associated with anxiousness and depression during gestation and this association is modified by major negative life events.Hoofdstuk 2. Methoden2.1 StudiedesignThe P5D-study. The Prediction of anxiousness and Depression during Pregnancy and the Postnatal Period ; the function of Personality ( P5D ) -study is an experimental longitudinal survey in the Dutch primary obstetric attention. The survey aims to develop a hazard mark based on established hazard factors and personality traits, to foretell ante- and postpartum anxiousness and depression at the first consult at the accoucheuses pattern. The P5D-study was approved by the Medical Ethical Committee ( Dutch: Medisch-Ethische Toetsingscommissie ( METc ) ) of the University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands.2.2 Studiepopulatie en dataverzamelingData was collected at multiple assessment minutes: ( 1 ) at baseline: at the first or 2nd consult at the obstetrics pattern ( largely at the terminal of the first trimester ) ; ( 2 ) at 24 hebdomads of gestation ; ( 3 ) at 36 hebdomads of gestation ; ( 4 ) 6 hebdomads postpartum ; ( 5 ) 6 months postpartum ; ( 6 ) 1 twelvemonth postpartum. The present survey involves informations from the baseline appraisal of the P5D-cohort, which ran from April 2010 to January 2011, although the inclusion still continues. Sample choice concerned 35 obstetrics patterns in both rural and urban countries in the four Northern states of the Netherlands: Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe and Overijssel. All adult females subscribing up at these obstetrics patterns could come in the survey. The lone adult females who were excluded from engagement were adult females who had no command of the Dutch linguistic communication. The included adult females received an informational bundle about the survey. This bundle contained an information missive, an informed consent, the first questionnaires and a stamped self-addressed envelope. Midwifes handed the bundle to the adult female while explicating and stressing the relevancy of this survey. When adult females agreed to take part, they filled in the printed questionnaires, every bit good as the informed consent and their personal information ( e.g. name, reference, telephone figure and email reference ) at place and sent them to us in the stamped self-addressed envelope . When we received the printed questionnaire, accompanied by the informed consent and the personal information of the participant, we used the supplied electronic mail reference to direct the username and watchword to entree the online questionnaires. Participants were instructed to reach us in instance they had no entree to the cyberspace at any clip during the survey. In response to these state of affairss ( n=3, 0.4 % ) , we sent the extra questionnaires in print to their postal reference, once more accompanied by a stamped self-addressed envelope.2.3 VragenlijstenQuestionnaires in print. The undermentioned questionnaires were handed in print at the obstetrics patterns: General information, dwelling of the gestational age and the day of the month of make fulling in the questionnaire, which we used to cipher the maternal age and the gestational age at any minute ; The Spielberger State Trait Anxiety Inventory ( STAI ) [ 60 ] to measure the degree of anxiousness. We used the six-item short-form, because the full signifier would be inappropriate in the position of high figure of questionnaires. Furthermore, the six-item short-form of the STAI produces tonss similar to those obtained utilizing the full-form [ 60 ] . The participant had to bespeak how they felt at the minute of appraisal, giving one of the four replies ( non at all ( 1 ) , slightly ( 2 ) , reasonably so ( 3 ) , really ( 4 ) ) . The six statements are: I feel unagitated, I feel nervous, I feel disquieted ( dying ) , I am relaxed, I feel satisfied, I am disquieted. The cut-off mark for an at least moderate degree of anxiousness is a†°?13 in this short-form [ 60 ] ; The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale ( EPDS ) [ 61 ] to measure the degree of depressive symptoms. Although the EPDS is developed to measure after gestation, the questionnaire is besides dependable to measure depressive symptoms during gestation [ 62 ] . The 10 points are: I am able to express joy and see the amusing side of things, I look frontward with enjoyment to things, I blame myself unnecessarily when things go incorrect, I am dying or worried for no good ground, I feel frightened or panicked for no really good ground, Thingss are acquiring on top of me, I am so unhappy that I have had trouble sleeping, I feel sad or suffering, I am so unhappy that I have been shouting, The idea of harming myself occurred to me. The cut-off mark for an at least moderate degree of depression is a†°?12 [ 61 ] ; An adjusted Negative Life Events Questionnaire ( NLEQ ) [ 65 ] , to buttockss major negative life events. We make a differentiation between different periods in life: in the period until the age of 16 ; between the age of 16 and until 2 old ages before gestation ; in the 2 old ages before gestation. The mentioned life events are: divorce ( of a parent, self or kid ) , new relationship, traveling, long-run and/or terrible unwellness ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, ego, kid or another of import individual ( e.g. friend, in-laws, a confidential adviser ) ) , decease ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, kid or another of import individual ) , terrible psychiatric jobs ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, kid, self or another of import individual ) , suicide effort ( of a parent, sibling, spouse, kid, self or another of import individual ) , household force, intoxicant or drugs abuse within the household or the relationship, being victim of a offense, being victim of a terrible accident, being vict im of sexual maltreatment, being victim of assault, holding an unwanted gestation ; Online questionnaire. The undermentioned questionnaire was administered online: Socio-economic place ( SEP, based on educational degree ( self and spouse ) , business ( self and spouse ) and one-year gross household income ) ) was assessed utilizing a questionnaire based on the Leidsche Rijn questionnaire ( Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, Utrecht ) [ 68 ] .2.4 Statistische analyseAlthough P5D contains all above-named questionnaires, merely the STAI ( anxiousness ) , EPDS ( depression ) , SEP ( socio-economic place ) and the adjusted NLEQ ( major negative life events ) questionnaires were necessary to prove our present hypotheses. First, we calculated descriptive statistics for the STAI and EPDS tonss, every bit good as for the five indexs of SEP ( educational degree ( self and spouse ) , business ( self and spouse ) and one-year household income ) and major negative life events. Second, we assessed the correlativity between the STAI and EPDS tonss, †¦ We averaged the indexs of SEP after standardisation of educational degree ( both ego and spouse ) and one-year household income ( z-scores ) . The lowest 25 % , intermediate 50 % and highest 25 % of the tonss were considered to stand for severally low, intermediate and high SEP. The degree of significance was set at 0.05, reversible. Datas were analyzed utilizing PASW statistics 18.Hoofdstuk 3. ResultatenThe present survey involves informations from the baseline appraisal of the P5D-cohort, which ran from April 2010 to January 2011. A sum of 863 participants filled in a questionnaire, but 115 participants ( 13.3 % ) were excluded because they did non make full in the STAI short-form. Exclusion due to non-mastery of the Dutch linguistic communication was non registered.Descriptive statisticsAnxiety. All of the 748 included participants ( 100 % ) filled in the STAI short-form. From these 748 participants, 108 ( 14.4 % ) scored above the cut-off value ( STAI a†°?13 ) . A histogram with the frequences of the STAI tonss is presented in figure 1. The average STAI mark was 9.96 ( SD = 2.68 ) . Figure 1 Histogram with the frequences of the STAI tonss. The cut-off mark for an at least moderate degree of anxiousness is STAI a†°?13: Depression. From the 748 included participants, 743 ( 99.5 % ) filled in the EPDS signifier. From these 743 participants, 31 ( 4.2 % ) scored above the cut-off value ( EPDS a†°?12 ) . A histogram with the frequences of the EPDS tonss is presented in figure 2. The average EPDS mark was 4.67 ( SD = 3.59 ) . Figure 2 Histogram with the frequences of the EPDS tonss. Cut-off value for an at least moderate degree of depression is EPDS a†°?12: Correlation between anxiousness and depression The correlativity between anxiousness and depression tonss was strong: R = 0.72, P & lt ; 0.01 ( Pearson ‘s trial, two-tailed significance ) . A spread secret plan is presented in figure 3. Figure 3 Scatter secret plan, stand foring the correlativity between the STAI and EPDS tonss: Socio-economic place. From the 748 included participants, 342 ( 45.7 % ) filled in all questionnaires about SEP. The descriptive statistics of the assessed indexs of SEP are presented in table 1 ( educational degree ) , table 2 ( occupational position ) and table 3 ( household income ) . Table 1 Descriptive statistics of educational degree: SelfN ( % )SpouseN ( % )Primary instruction ( basisschool, speciaal onderwijs ) 0 8 ( 1.9 ) Low-level secondary instruction ( LBO-opleiding ) 1 ( 0.2 ) 16 ( 3.8 ) Middle-level secondary instruction ( bijv. MAVO, VBO ) 17 ( 4.0 ) 27 ( 6.4 ) Vocational preparation ( MBO-opleiding ) 145 ( 33.9 ) 182 ( 43.3 ) High-level secondary instruction ( HAVO, VWO, Gymnasium ) 29 ( 6.8 ) 20 ( 4.8 ) Professional instruction ( HBO-opleiding ) 168 ( 39.3 ) 122 ( 29.0 ) University ( WO-opleiding ) 68 ( 15.9 ) 45 ( 10.7 ) Entire 428 420 Table 2 Descriptive statistics of occupational position: SelfN ( % )SpouseN ( % )Yes 384 ( 89.5 ) 412 ( 96.9 ) No 45 ( 10.5 ) 13 ( 3.1 ) Entire 429 425 Table 3 Descriptive statistics of household income ( gross, in euro ‘s per twelvemonth ) :N ( % )0 – 14,999 14 ( 4.0 ) 15,000 – 30,999 58 ( 16.4 ) 31,000 – 59,999 207 ( 58.5 ) 60,000 – 89,999 60 ( 19.9 ) 90.000 or more 15 ( 4.2 ) Entire 354 Correlation between different facets of socio-economic place. The correlativities between the five mensural facets of SEP are presented in table 4.Literatuurlijst1. Ormel J, Petukhova M, Chatterji S, et Al. 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Chronic stressors, societal support, and depression during gestation. Obstet Gynecol. 1995 Apr ; 85 ( 4 ) :583-9. 59. Zelkowitz P, Schinazi J, Katofsky L et Al. Factors associated with depression in pregnant immigrant adult females. Transcult Psychiatry. 2004 Dec ; 41 ( 4 ) :445-64. b. Lancaster CA, Gold KJ, Flynn HA, Yoo H, Marcus SM, Davis MM. Hazard factors for depressive symptoms during gestation: a systematic reappraisal. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Jan ; 202 ( 1 ) :5-14. c. Grant KE, Compas BE, Thurm AE et Al. Stressors and kid and adolescent abnormal psychology: grounds of moderating and mediating effects. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006 May ; 26 ( 3 ) :257-83. Epub 2005 Dec 20. d. Evans GW. The environment of Childhood Poverty. Am Psychol. 2004 Feb-Mar ; 59 ( 2 ) :77-92. 60. Marteau TM, Bekker H. The development of a six-item short-form of the province graduated table of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory ( STAI ) . Br J Clin Psychol. 1992 Sep ; 31 ( Pt 3 ) :301-306. 61. 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Alon Together

Yuqin Ge Prof. Joshua November Final Draft 4 4. 8. 2013 Imagination and Reality Individuals live with both imagination and reality. Often, imagination is based on reality and rooted reality. They utilize their imagination to image something they have never seen to fulfill their curiosity or something they are eager to realize. In â€Å"The World and Other Places,† Jeanette Winterson depicts a boy, a fictional character, who imaged flying to many places in his childhood. When he grew up, he joined the Air Force and realized the reality was not as fantastic as he had imagined.In â€Å"Bumping into Mr. Ravioli,† Gopnik uses his daughter Olivia and her imaginary playmate Charlie Ravioli, who is always too busy to play with her, to reveal a deeper truth about New York. Gopnik explains how imagination can be beneficial in understanding reality. Gopnik and Winterson both confirm that imagination is beneficial because it can help individuals to develop their identity and to hav e fun. One the contrary Gopnik contradicts Winterson, suggesting that imagination can also let individuals feel disappointed when imagination can not match reality.Individuals can develop their identity with imagination. Gopnik confirms Winterson on people can develop their identity through an imaginary sense. In Winterson’s story, the narrator was disappointed because reality was so different than his fantasies in his childhood. He supposed the real places and the people would be like fantasy as he imaged; however, his reality let him down. He lost himself and tried to find a specific answer to his identity, â€Å"How shall I live? † (287) Until one day, the narrator met an old woman in the park, he realized he could develop his identity through his imagination.Although the old woman was in poverty, she was happy, â€Å"Happy. The kind of happiness that comes from a steadiness inside. This was genuine. This was not someone who had turned away from the bolted door. It was open. She was on the other side. † (288) The narrator imaged there was a bolted door and the old woman was on the other side from him, because the old woman knew her identity and her expectation clearly. Here, the narrator learned he could not find his identity because he was not satisfied with his expectation from the old woman who was on the other side.He realized and developed his identity due to the usage of imagination. Gopnik confirms Winterson that Gopnik develops his identity through his daughter’s imaginary friend Charlie Ravioli who is always too busy to play with her. Olivia creates an imaginary friend based on the real world where she lives. There is a big difference between children like Olivia and children from out of New York. Olivia lives in New York which is busy, tight and huge, and the children who live outside of the cities live in a world where they can be free to play and do as much as they want to.Charlie Ravioli is a typical New Yorker, â₠¬Å"fit, opinionated, and trying to break into show business. † Gopnik notices that almost every single person in New York is as busy, or may pretend as Charlie Ravioli. Gopnik is also a New Yorker, and he realizes, â€Å"Busyness is our art form, our civic ritual, our way of being us. Many friends have said to me that they love New York now in a way they never did before, and their love, I’ve noticed, takes for its object all the things that used exasperate them—the curious combination of freedom, self-made fences, and paralyzing preoccupation that the city provides. (160) He realizes that the busyness in New York is more different than before. Gopnik realizes himself as a New Yorker like Charlie Ravioli, and then he develops his identity. Winterson’s developed his identity, and then he continued to seek the answer â€Å"How shall I live? † much deeper through his imagination. Gopnik also develops his identity and he knows himself and New Yorkers w ell. Both Winterson and Gopnik confirm that individuals can develop their identity with imagination. Gopnik confirms Winterson’s that individuals can have fun with their imagination.In Winterson’s story, when the narrator was a child, he and his family were too poor to travel anywhere, but they spent time on an imaginary trip in their living room. They used their imagination to fly away to better places such as â€Å"Bombay, Cairo, Paris, New York† and escape the reality of poverty that they faced (283). When they reached destination, they enjoyed themselves in their trip. The narrator stated, â€Å"When we reached our destination, we were glad to stand up and stretch our legs. Then my sister gave us each a blindfold.We put it on, and sat quietly, dreaming, imagining, while one of us started talking about the strange place we were visiting. † (284) Although they had never been to these places and didn’t know the appearance of these places, they con sidered these locations as amazing places to travel to. The narrator had so much fun flying an aeroplane with his imagination. Likewise, in Gopnik’s essay, his daughter Olivia has fun with her imaginary friend, Ravioli. A paracosm is an extension of imaginary friend, it is an imaginary world.He mentions about his daughter that â€Å"The existence of an imaginary friend had liberated her into a paracosm, but it was a curiously New York paracosm† (160) Author Gopnik uses the word paracosm in his essay which describes a detailed imaginary world which his daughter creates. His daughter has made herself her own little world with her imagination, kind of a mini New York. In this world she lives the life of a New Yorker with a busy life and with friends who have no free time to sit down and play with her.Although she is unlike the other children who play, have a nap and pay a visit to the Central Park Zoo, â€Å"she is too hurried to share them, that she dose have an indepen dence social life, by virtue of being to busy to have one. † (154) Olivia enjoys herself in her imaginary world, so she is too hurried to share them. Olivia’s childhood is different from other children’s. She creates her own world which based on reality. She enjoys herself with her imaginary friend in her own world. In her site, she regards this imaginary game as fun and she has fun with this creating world.The narrator had fun in his fantastic travel and Olivia enjoys herself and has fun with their imaginary world and friend. Therefore, Gopnik confirms Winterson’s on individuals can have fun with their imagination. Imagination is a double-edged sword. It can benefit individuals but can also make individuals disappointed. This depends on if it is based on reality or not, Gopnik complicates Winterson’s negative stance on reality. In Winterson’s story, when the narrator was a child, he and his family would spend time in their living room on tra veling with their imagination.They used their imagination to fly over better places, such as â€Å"Bombay, Cairo, Paris, New York† and escape the reality of poverty that they faced (283). After years of dreaming of these places, the narrator joined the Air Force and physically traveled to these places he imaged traveling to in his childhood. After all his traveling, he stated, â€Å"Bombay. Cairo. Paris. New York. We have invented them so many times that to tell the truth will be a disappointment† (289). After traveling to all these â€Å"amazing places,† he was disappointed because he was unable to tell his amily the truth that these places were not as amazing as they had imaged them to be. He was disappointed because he had imaged these places in his childhood with his imagination, and they didn’t match his expectations. Unlike the narrator, imagination benefits Gopnik’s daughter, due to the fact that her imaginary world is based on reality. In G opnik’s essay, he illustrates how beneficial the imagination is. Gopnik’s daughter, Olivia, has an imaginary friend Mr. Ravioli, who is too busy to play with her.Gopnik’s sister certifies that children create an imaginary playmate â€Å"not out of trauma but out of a serene sense of the possibilities of fiction-sometimes as figures of pure fantasy, sometimes, as Olivia had done, as observations of grown-up manners, assembled in tranquility and given a name. †(155) This means imagination is not a trauma, is beneficial to help Olivia cognize the reality. Olivia begins to understand how to organize her experience into stories through her imagination.She created an imaginary friend based on her observation of the adults living in New York. This creation of the imagination is rooted in reality because her imagination can match the reality where she lives. Gopnik’s daughter creates an imaginary friend who benefits her to cognize the reality; however, in Winterson’s, the narrator disappointed because the reality didn’t match his expectation. Gopnik contradicts Winterson on imagination can benefits individual when imagination depends on reality. Imagination is a double-edged sword.If individuals are able to connect imagination with reality, they will be able to develop their identity and have fun with their own world. But if individuals cannot match imagination with reality, they would be disappointed, just like the narrator in Winterson’s. In Gopnik’s essay, because Gopnik match reality with his daughter’s imaginary playmate, he develops his identity in New York. Winterson confirms Gopnik, because the narrator developed his identity through his an imaginary bolted door. Both Winterson and Gopnik confirm that individuals can have fun with their imagination.

The attractiveness model proposes Essays

The attractiveness model proposes Essays The attractiveness model proposes Essay The attractiveness model proposes Essay The attractiveness model proposes that the effectiveness of a message depends on the sources physical attractiveness, likeability, familiarity and similarity to the recipient of the message. (Shimp 2003:297) Evidence suggests that attractiveness is an important factor and this is reinforced by the empirical use of celebrity endorsers in the first who are general seen as physically attractive (Ohanion 1990:41). Without doubt the rapid rate at which fans adopt the new Beckham hairstyle supports this and highlights his effectiveness in appealing to target audience aspirations. A study conducted by Zhou (2004) found that these western appeals worked on high involvement goods and although the local cultures concept of beauty is different, the inspirational aspect became so vital that such ads are quite successful as long as western models are used. Following on the concept of attractiveness and the need to use western models, current evidence emerging in China demonstrates the adaptable use of a foreign celebrity known as Dashan . Canadian by birth, this lanky Ottawa is relatively unknown in Canada however he is now renowned as the first westerner to perform the ancient Chinese art of xiangsheng, or comedic dialogue. Roswell, 39, is prospering in a society where TV performers work for minimal pay, earning his keep through lucrative advertising endorsement . (www. chinadaily. com ) The Dashan character provides Rowswell with a decent income and has enabled him to carry the personal satisfaction that his efforts may chip away at the Great Wall of cultural misunderstanding between China and the West. He collaborates and notes I try to bring to the Chinese a new image of foreigners that flies in the face of the stereotypes most have grown up with,(www. chinadaily. com ). This is a dynamic example of the use of foreigners in endorsements and shows how attractiveness , credibility and match up can be suited to a differing cultural context Unfortunately physical attractiveness is a difficult concept to define. The old adage that beauty is in the eye of the beholder is applicable here. (Benoy 1982:15) . This leads one to the admission that different cultures will ultimately perceive physical attractiveness in a different way and individuals who would be considered attractive in one country may be considered unattractive in another. (Rhodes, Zebrowitz: 1997) A clear example would be the depiction of beautiful women in the west. Generally, evidence suggest that women who are tall elegant and slim are regarded as beautiful. In contrast, Africans consider fullness of figure as vital while height is not as important. One would therefore assume that western models would have no appeal in these cultures . Evidence suggest otherwise , most depiction of models in multinational firms in China have western views of beauty. Despite David Beckhams seemingly global appeal, there are instances when his endorsements have been received in bad taste as happened in Iran (some cultures attach less importance to physical beauty than others). Research reveals that collectivistic cultures attach less significance to physical attractiveness while individualism is directly related to stereotyping and physical attractiveness. This therefore explains why Beckham as an endorser in China is eclipsed by Luo Xian ( www.chainatoday. com ) who is regarded as being more attractive. Furthermore, Erdogan, et al. (2001) found that trustworthiness and expertise were more important for technical products. Thus it would be reasonable to conclude that the concept of physical attractive is more essential when considering endorsements of non technical products. In general, physically attractive endorsers are seen as more effective than less attractive endorsers in terms of creating favourable impressions towards the advertised brands and products (Shimp 2003). It can be seen from the evidence presented that attractiveness, likeability and personality are more related to attention getting whereas expertise is closely related to intention to purchase . What is clear is that celebrities are a more attractive and credible source in advertising, consequently these factors should have a bearing on how celebrities are used in a cross cultural context as these dimensions are affected by culture. Dimensions of culture High vs. low context Culture has been shown to be one of the most obvious and frequently used orientations for showing differences between Asian and western societies (Cho et al. 1999; Kim, Pan, and Park 1998). In the advertising context such differences are highlighted by the differing communication facets. These dimensions suggest two kinds of communication types. A high context communication is one in which most of the information is already available in the physical context or within the persons frame of reference. Whereas a low context communication is just the opposite, in that the mass of the information is emphasised in the explicit code. In high-context cultures (China), messages are conveyed in an abstract, implicit, and indirect manner. In contrast, communication in low-context cultures is more straightforward, explicit, and direct. Western countries such as the United States are characterized as low-context cultures whereas, Asian cultures such as Japan and Korea exhibit a high-context communication style. (Chow et al. 1999; Hall 1976). This point is important because it raises questions about whether an endorser can be truly global and use similar appeals and endorsement techniques between different countries, evidence gathered so far and practical examples show that there is a crucial need to adapt at least the communication style of the host country. It is fair to conclude that in low context cultures celebrity endorsements are often information orientated and follow a central route to persuasion. Conversely, in high context cultures advertising tends to be more emotional, symbolic and should follow a peripheral route to persuasion. Individualism vs. collectivism Another common cultural dimension is to compare individualistic versus collective societies. Originating from Hoofsteds work in 1984 this concept shows how different values are appreciated across cultures. Individualistic societies such as the UK show high realisation, independence and high levels of competition characteristic of western societies. In contrast, collective societies emphasise interdependence , harmony , family , group oriented goals and low levels of competition . (hofstede 1984) These concepts also influence advertising and celebrity endorsements . Advertising in individualistic countries often emphasises independence, uniqueness and success of individuals. In contrast, collective cultures use endorsements that show the cultural values of interdependence, integrity group goals and concern for others. In this respect employing celebrities to endorse products seems to be more fitting to collectivistic cultures because celebrities transfer symbolic meanings and this is an integral part of high context culture communications. Conclusions This paper has clarified the meaning of celebrities and endorsements. We have further expanded by including how one becomes a celebrity and deviated from the norm by showing that one does not necessarily have to be successful in a particular arena to qualify as a celebrity. This study has therefore highlighted the importance of media (such as television) in the making of celebrities. There is a suggestion that celebrities can be purposefully built and used in the endorsement process. Particular examples relating to popular Big brother television series have been cited to prove this. The study has shown that culture inevitably influences the content and style of advertising across countries. Celebrity endorsement provides a frame of reference with the product for consumers. Advertising techniques will naturally vary across different countries. Given the financial implications of cross country advertising it is important to assess these differences. The report has clearly demonstrated the need for this through practical examples that relate to the need for adaptation toward local audiences in the celebrity endorsement process. Comparing such differences has added depth and clarity to understanding comparisons involving the study cultures that vary on the major constructs with sufficient functional similarities such as China and the U. K (Berry 1980). Celebrity endorsements have been analysed from three important aspects credibility, attractiveness and meaning transfer. It has also been clearly shown that credibility is not as important a factor as suggested by literature. The rap culture example is clear testimony that even seemingly unconvincing celebrity endorsers can still successfully promote consumer products. It can be concluded that, although credibility does influence the success of the endorsement process, it is not a deciding factor. Moreover advertisers can take advantage of such endorsers and attempt to match them to target audience cultural values, however extreme. Attractiveness has been shown to be a unique concept that allows and enables the penetration of celebrity endorsement into the cluttered media space. Attractive celebrities have been shown to be quite effective. However this paper has noted the different interpretations of beauty across the cultures. These do not seem to significantly affect the use of such celebrity endorsees in different countries. In fact it would seem that there is a growing convergence towards the western definition of beauty and that these can be used to inspire target audiences in other countries. There is little doubt that the, Dashan example offers new insights into how both the transfer of meaning , credibility and attractiveness can be incorporated in cross cultural celebrity endorsements . Careful pre-test of celebrity endorsements should be carried out in such markets before the endorsement strategy is fully implemented. The match up hypothesis has been shown to be outdated and inadequate in explaining the success of celebrity endorser who has promoted products that are either outside their area of expertise, rival competing brands or products that have little fit with their characteristics. Although this theory must inevitably be used as a baseline, It seems possible in international advertising to venture in product endorsements that may have little fit with the endorser and take advantage of other aspects such as credibility and attractiveness instead. Although the first part of McCracken model is quite precise, the second part needs further expansion and the model misses essentially ingredients necessary in the understanding of the transfer of meaning. In this respect it is necessary to first look at the product and relate it to cultural aspirations and then ultimately adjusts the endorser execution or presentation of the product to suit the national or cultural appeals. It would be folly for example, to have endorsement in China based on the Beckham sex appeal as often seen in the U. K. The importances of cultural considerations have been carefully appraised and should complement the implementation and understanding how advertising works. We can reach the logical conclusion that Chinese audiences are more likely to conform to group norms and more likely to follow pre-dominant trends , unlike their western counterparts . Ultimately, this essay has shown that cross cultural celebrity endorsement is still a relatively new area of research. In addition, there is inconsistency in how celebrities are used at an international level. It is also unlikely that international celebrity endorsements can succeed without relative adaptation of both the product, the message and the endorser to suit prevailing cultural considerations in the host country. The degree and extent of adaptation will differ depending on the psychic distance between the endorse and the target audience. Limitations Given the mentioned importance of cross cultural similarities and differences, findings of this study do not provide answers regarding how often celebrities are used in the two differing cultures. Neither is it clarified as to how far celebrity endorsers can be extended in different countries. Such answers can be derived from a more substantial content analysis rather than a qualitative report. There is also a need to research the extent of public glamorisation between cultures, and how personal characteristics may influence this. Although this paper attempted to demonstrate the differing endorsements strategies between countries, it fails to provide enough examples largely due to its qualitative nature. Advertising practitioners need to know more than just when to use a celebrity endorser. They should also be clear on how to use endorsers. It may be necessary to examine how this can be done indifferent countries. Bibliography 1. Agrawal, Jagdish, and Wagner A. Kamakura (1995), The Economic Worth of Celebrity Endorsers: An Event Study Analysis Journal of Marketing, 59 (3), 5 2. Benoy, J, (1982) the credibility of physically attractive communicators, A Review of journal of Advertising 11. 3 p15-23 3. Choi S. M , Lee W. N, Kim. H. J(2005) Lessons From The Rich and Famous :A Cross cultural Comparison of Celebrity Endorsement in Advertising , Journal of advertising vol 34 iss. 2pg 85